The Political Philosophy of Zhang Taiyan

Viren Murthy reflects on Zhang Taiyan’s (章太炎) essays developing a critique of modernity using a Yogacara Buddhist framework.

Zhang Taiyan is writing from Tokyo in the early 20th century, first with a strong anti-Manchu stance, that colors his views on imperialism, and then more generally a Buddhist interpretation of identity and nationhood in modernity. The Manchus primarily followed Confucianism, and Zhang attacks the Heavenly principle using Daoist and Buddhist arguments.

Zhang Taiyan constructs arguments using karma and vasana (perfumation) and the astavijnanani to synthesize ideas ranging from evolution to conceptualizing modernity.

(Murthy pp. 157, Ch 5)

Just as a cloth acquires the scent of nearby perfume, humans’ behaviour and mental activity are conditioned by karmic actions and experiences.

In Yogacara, this metaphor is used to show that that the self is constantly confused and clings to things in the world.

Evolution and History

1. The notion of karma beeja the seeds of karma that lay hidden underground that cause unseen/unknowable roots of the present fruits karmaphala of past action plays an axiomatic role in structuring Zhang’s argument. (Lusthaus, On the plant metaphor) Zhang:

   One cannot negate the fact of evolution, but one should not accept the affects of evolution on us Murthy (pp 157): Yogacara does posit a degree of collectiev karma which forms the condition for the possibility of human being’s perceptural workd and communication. In Zhang’s view, this collective karma is grounded in alaya consciousness, which he claims is identical to living things. > “All living things are the same as sychness (tathata); they are the same as alaya consiousness. Therefore consciousness is not limited to one’s body.”

2. Zhang is able to connect Evolution to the karmic cycle:

   Why do morality and immorality advance together? One cause is perfuming. Sentient being’s original natures are neither virtuous nor immoral, but through action they can become virtuous or immoral. Alaya consciousness is a state of non impedimentary moral neutrality (alklista-avyakarta). Manas consciousness is a state of impedimentary moral neutrality. With consciousness we began to have virtue, immorality, and neutrality. Pure neutrality is called original seeds. When good and bad are mixed, this refers to when the seeds begin to sprout. All things advance according to the law of evolution; hence they cannot stay ath the level of neutrality. One must mix the seeds of good and bad. The only creature that does not mix these two is the earliest amoeba. From that time on beacuse there are impediments, various types of good and bad slowly appear and develop. They perfume the original consciousness and become seeds Finally, Zhang develops the argument that the “confusion” of one’s identity with alaya consciousness causes one’s “will to win”, and hence tries to explain the destructive arc of imperialism as an outcome of this primordial “confusion”.

3. Zhang posits that history cannot be merely progressive. He argues that more false identity causes a greater good in terms of progression of science but also great evil. So modernity beckons extreme versions of both good and evil. Murthy:

   [Zhang] asserts … that history or evolution is not linear but moves in two directions. As the good progresses so does the bad; as pleasure increases so does pain.

Notes from chapters

1. Introduction: Zhang Taiyan and Chinese modernity Takeuchi Yoshimi, writing about Zhang’s student Lu Xun’s conceptualization of Chinese anti-imperialism:

   Modernity is the self-recognition of Europe as seen within history, the taking as a self thatself that separates itsefl from feudalism, which Europe gained in the proecss of linterating itself from the feudal. Therefore it can be said that Europe is first possible only in this history and that history itself is possible in this Europe.

2. Zhang’s Critique of Kang Youwei: Anti-Manchurism, the National Essenece, and the Revolution
3. Buddhist Epistemology and Modern Self-Identity: Zhang Taiyan’s “On Establishing Religion” Murthy:

   … in Zhang’s view, the belief in the legitimacy of the state and in progress and science are both regligious. Such religious beliefs not only legitimate the oppression of individuals in a society, but, Zhang contended, they are used as fig leads by imperialists. Hence, unlike almost all of his contemporaries, Zhang did not think of religion and science as opposed. In fact, …, he connected key scientific concepts, such as evolution, to a relgigious attribution of existence to that which is illusory. Murthy pp 158:

4. Transfiguring Modern Temporality: Zhang Taiyan’s Critique of Evolutionary History
5. Daoist Equalization against the Universal Principle: Zhang Taiyan’s Critique of Late Qing Political Theory

   … Internationally stats have turned into imperialist man-eaters that bring to mind the beast-races/rulers on four sides, Hun Dun, Tao Tie, Tao Wu, and Quing Qi. … These four terms refer to mythical beasts that have merely fictional existence, especially when placed in the context of a scientific worldview. … Zhang hopes that by involing the fantastical and mythical, he can make his critique and yet avoid a simple re-inscription of the civilization-barbarism dichotomy, which he believes is presuppsed by the scientific worldview.

6. Conclusion: Zhang Taiyan, Lu Xun, Wang Hui: The Politics of Imagining a Better Future

Scholars I want to follow up on

1. Prasenjit Duara
2. Arif Dirlik